Innovative designs of 3D scaffolds for bone tissue regeneration: Understanding principles and addressing challenges

Meeting the escalating demands in biomedical applications has spurred the creation of diverse scaffolds, where the selection of materials and manufacturing techniques stands as a linchpin in fostering bone tissue formation. These scaffolds provide a fundamental structural framework that supports cell growth and differentiation. It is vital for tissue repair, addressing various biological requisites such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and mechanical properties becomes imperative. This comprehensive review discusses recent advancements in the techniques for manufacturing 3D scaffolds tailored specifically for bone tissue engineering applications. Stereolithography, fused deposition modelling, selective laser sintering, binder jetting, electron beam melting, and bioprinting (including laser-based, inkjet and extrusion 3D bioprinting) are meticulously explored. Focusing on their respective applications, limitations, as well as advantages and disadvantages within the context of bone tissue regeneration. Furthermore, the article underscores the pivotal role of material selection as a potential solution to address challenges associated with bone grafts. It emphasizes the need for a nuanced understanding of the significant considerations regardless of the tissue type when designing or evaluating the suitability of scaffolds for integration into the expansive realm of tissue engineering.